No.1 » 2012 May 12 » ChinaU
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| 2100 BCE Xia dynasty c. 2100–c. 1600 BCE Shang dynasty c. 1600–c. 1046 BCE Zhou dynasty c. 1045–256 BCE Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Warring States IMPERIAL Qin dynasty 221–206 BCE Han dynasty 206 BCE – 220 CE Western Han Xin dynasty Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220–280 Wei, Shu and Wu Jin dynasty 265–420 Western Jin Eastern Jin 16 Kingdoms Southern and Northern Dynasties 420–589 Sui dynasty 581–618 Tang dynasty 618–907 (Second Zhou 690–705) 5 Dynasties and 10 Kingdoms 907–960 Liao dynasty 907–1125 Song dynasty 960–1279 Northern Song W. Xia Southern Song Jin Yuan dynasty 1271–1368 Ming dynasty 1368–1644 Qing dynasty 1644–1911 MODERN Republic of China 1912–1949 People's Republic of China 1949–present Republic of China on Taiwan 1949–present Related articles * Chinese historiography * Timeline of Chinese history * Dynasties in Chinese history * Linguistic history * Art history * Economic history * Education history * Science and technology history * Legal history * Media history * Military history * Naval history Main article: Names of China China Chinese name Simplified Chinese: ضذ¹ْ Traditional Chinese: ضذ‡ّ Literal meaning: Middle Kingdom[24][25] Transliterations Gan - Romanization: Tung-koe̍t Kejia - Romanization: Dung24 Gued2 Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōngguَ - Tongyong Pinyin: Jhongguَ - Wade-Giles: Chung1-kuo2 - Gwoyeu Romatzyh: Jong'gwo - Bopomofo ¨س¨è¨ه ¨ح¨è¨غ¨@ - Xiao'erjing ﺟْﻮ ﻗُﻮَع Min - Hokkien POJ: Tiong-kok - Min Dong BUC: Dṳ̆ng-guَk Wu - Romanization: Tsonئ½ kohبë Xiang - Romanization: /tan33 kwɛ24/ Yue - Jyutping: Zung1 gwok3 - Yale Romanization: Jūnggwok People's Republic of China Alternative Chinese name Simplified Chinese: ضذ»ھبثأٌ¹²؛ح¹ْ Traditional Chinese: ضذبAبثأٌ¹²؛ح‡ّ Transliterations Gan - Romanization: Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet Hakka - Romanization: Dung24 fa11 ngin11 min11 kiung55 fo11 gued2 Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōnghuل Rénmيn Gٍnghéguَ - Bopomofo ¨س¨è¨ه ¨د¨è¨ع¨@ ¨ض¨م¨@ ¨ا¨ç¨م¨@ ¨ح¨è¨ه¨A ¨د¨ـ¨@ ¨ح¨è¨غ¨@ - Xiao'erjing ﺟْﻮ ﺧُﻮَ ژٌ مٍ ﻗْﻮ حْ ﻗُﻮَع Min - Hokkien POJ: Tiong-hôa jîn-bîn kiông-hô-kok - Min Dong BUC: Dṳ̆ng-huà جng-mىng Gê̤ṳng-huٍ-guَk Wu - Romanization: Tsonئ½ ghoئ½ zinئ½ minئ½ gonب¥ ghuئ½ kohبë Xiang - Romanization: /tan33 go13 ŋin13 min13 gan45 gu13 kwɛ24/ Yue - Jyutping: Zung1 waa4 jan4 man4 gung6 wo4 gwok3 - Yale Romanization: Jūngwàh Yàhnmàhn Guhngwٍhgwok Mongolian name Mongolian: Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus, ᠪᠦᠭᠦᠳᠡ ᠨᠠᠶᠢᠷᠠᠮᠳᠠᠬᠤ ᠳᠤᠮᠳᠠᠳᠤ ᠠᠷᠠᠳ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ Transliterations - SASM/GNC Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus Tibetan name Tibetan: ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ Transliterations - Wylie: krung hwa mi dmangs spyi mthun rgyal khab - Zangwen Pinyin: Zhunghua Mimang Jitun Gyalkab Uyghur name Uyghur: جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىت Transliterations - Latin Yëziqi: Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti - Yengi Yezik̡: Junghua Həlk̡ Jumh̡uriyiti - SASM/GNC: Junghua Hنlk̂ Jumĥuriyiti - Siril Yëziqi: Җَңَُà صәëқ Җَىһًَèéèٍè Zhuang name Zhuang: Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters. The word "China" is derived from the Persian word Chin (چین), which is from the Sanskrit word Cīna (चीन).[26] It is first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[27] The journal was translated and published in England in 1555.[28] The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini, is that Cîna is derived from "Qin" (اط), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou Dynasty.[29] However, the word was used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata (5th century BC) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BC).[30][31] The official name of the present country is the People's Republic of China (Chinese: ضذ»ھبثأٌ¹²؛ح¹ْ; pinyin: Zhōnghuل Rénmيn Gٍnghéguَ). The common Chinese names for the country are Zhôngguَ (Chinese: ضذ¹ْ, from zhōng, "central" or "middle", and guَ, "state" or "states," and in modern times, "nation") and Zhōnghuل (Chinese: ضذ»ھ), although the country's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments. The term Zhōngguَ appeared in various ancient texts, such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE,[j] and in pre-imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived "barbarians". The term, which can be either singular or plural, referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain, but was not used as a name for the country as a whole until the nineteenth century. The Chinese were not unique in regarding their country as "central", with other civilizations having the same view of themselves.[32] History History of China History of China ANCIENT Neolithic c. 8500–c. * view * talk * edit Main articles: History of China and Timeline of Chinese history Prehistory Main article: Chinese prehistory Jade deer ornament dating from the Shang Dynasty (17th–11th centuries BCE) Archaeological evidence suggests o 9.6 Religion * 10 Culture o 10.1 Cuisine o 10.2 Sports * 11 See also * 12 Footnotes * 13 References * 14 Further reading * 15 External links Etymologythat early hominids inhabited China between 250,000 and 2.24 million years ago.[33] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680,000 and 780,000 BCE.[34] The fossils are of Peking Man, an example of Homo erectus who used fire.[35] The Peking Man site has also yielded remains of Homo sapiens dating back to 18,000–11,000 BCE.[36] Some scholars assert that a form of proto-writing existed in China as early as 3000 BCE.[37] According to Chinese tradition, the first imperial dynasty was the Xia, which emerged around 2070 BCE.[38] However, the dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou, Henan in 1959.[39] It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period.[40] Early dynastic rule Further information: Dynasties in Chinese history The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang,[41] settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE.[42] The oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found,[43] and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[44] The Shang were conquered by the Zhou, who ruled between the 12th and 5th centuries BCE, until its centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year Spring and Autumn Period, only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army. Imperial China Some of the thousands of life-size Terracotta Warriors of the Qin Dynasty, ca. 210 BCE The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE, after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. Qin Shi Huang, the emperor of Qin, proclaimed himself the "First Emperor" (ت¼»تµغ) and imposed reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language, measurements, length of cart axles, and currency. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after Qin Shi Huang's death, as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.[45][46] The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day.[45][46] The Han Dynasty expanded the empire's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching Korea, Vietnam, Mongolia and Central Asia, and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[47] The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism, a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period, as its official state ideology. Despite the Han's official abandonment of Legalism, the official ideology of the Qin, Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government.[48] The Great Wall of China was built by several dynasties over two thousand years to protect the sedentary agricultural regions of the Chinese interior from incursions by nomadic pastoralists of the northern steppes After the collapse of Han, a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed.[49] In 581 CE, China was reunited under the Sui. However, the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the Goguryeo–Sui War (598–614).[50][51] Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese technology and culture entered a golden age.[52] The An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century devastated the country and weakened the dynasty.[53] The Song Dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy.[54] Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly due to the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song Dynasty also saw a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity,[55] and social elites gathered to view art, share their own and trade precious artworks. The Song Dynasty saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang.[56] Detail from Along the River During the Qingming Festival, a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the Song Dynasty's capital city, Bianjing (today's Kaifeng) In the 13th century, China was gradually conquered by the Mongol empire. In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song Dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[57] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughoutfounded the Ming Dynasty. Under the Ming Dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the the world, reaching as far as Africa.[58] In the early years of the Ming Dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. During the Ming Dynasty, philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and innate morality.[59] In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng, a minor Ming official who led the peasant revolt. The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li's short-lived Shun Dynasty, and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty. End of dynastic rule A 19th-century painting depicting the Taiping Rebellion of 1850–1864 The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. In the 19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War (1839–42) and the Second Opium War (1856–60) with Britain. China was forced to sign unequal treaties, pay compensation, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British[60] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking. The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[61] The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died. In the 1850s and 1860s, the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China. Other major rebellions included the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), the Nien Rebellion (1851–68), the Miao Rebellion (1854–73), the Panthay Rebellion (1856–73) and the Dungan Revolt (1862–77). In the 19th century, the great Chinese Diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[62] In 1898, the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but he was overthrown by the Empress Dowager Cixi in a coup d'état. The ill-fated anti-Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the Qing dynasty. The Xinhai Revolution of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China. Republic of China (1912–1949) Main articles: Republic of China (1912–1949) and History of the Republic of China See also: Taiwan and Taiwan after World War II Sun Yat-sen, the father of modern China (seated on right), and Chiang Kai-shek, later President of the Republic of China Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong toasting together in 1946 following the end of World War II On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.[63] However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic.[64] After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[65][66] In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings, known collectively as the Northern Expedition.[67][68] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's San-min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[69][70] The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists, against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March, until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan.[71] The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theatre of World War II, forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[72] An estimated 200,000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[73] Japan surrendered unconditionally to China in 1945. Taiwan, including the Pescadores, was put under the administrative control of the Republic of China, which immediately claimed sovereignty. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[74] People's Republic of China (1949–present) Main article: History of the People's Republic of China The Nationalist government's retreat to Taipei Mao Zedong proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949 Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China, and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only Taiwan, Hainan, and their surrounding islands. On 1 October 1949, Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.[75] In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC[76] and occupying Tibet.[77] However, remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.[78] Mao encouraged population growth, and under his leadership the Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.[79] However, Mao's Great Leap Forward, a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[80] Between 1 and 2 million landlords were executed as "counterrevolutionaries."[81] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a period of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[82] After Mao's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping took power and led the country to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party subsequently loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favour of private land leases. This turn of events marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment.[83] China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.[84] Shanghai skyline Jiang Zemin, Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.[85][86] The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao's leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,[87][88] and caused major social displacement.[89][90] Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late-2000s recession, but centralized political control remained tight.[91] Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals.[92] During China's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping.[93][94] Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,[95][96] which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.[97][98][99][100] The Xi-Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one-child policy and prison system.[101] Geography Main article: Geography of China A composite satellite image showing the topography of China Longsheng Rice Terrace in Guangxi The Li River in Guangxi Political geography Main articles: Borders of China and Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China The People's Republic of China is the second-largest country in the world by land area[102] after Russia, and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the United States.[k] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[103] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopوdia Britannica,[104] 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[5] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the CIA World Factbook.[7] China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin.[7] China borders 14 nations, more than any other country except Russia, which also borders 14.[105] China extends across much of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Burma in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal and Pakistan[l] in South Asia; Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and the Philippines. Landscape and climate The South China Sea coast at Hainan Jiuzhaigou Valley in Sichuan The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[106] The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154m) in the Turpan Depression.[107] China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[108] The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex topography. A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.[109][110] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Korea and Japan. China's environmental watchdog, Sepa, stated in 2007 that China is losing a million acres (4,000 km²) per year to desertification.[111] Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[112] Biodiversity Main article: Wildlife of China A giant panda, China's most famous endangered and endemic species, at the Wolong National Nature Reserve in Sichuan China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[113] lying in two of the world's major ecozones: the Palearctic and the Indomalaya. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia.[114] The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.[115] It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.[116] China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest such number in the world),[117] 1,221 species of birds (eighth),[118] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[119] and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).[120] China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside of the tropics. Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of homo sapiens. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine.[121] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005, the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.[122] China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[123] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[124] The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.[124] Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[124] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi,[125] and of them, nearly 6,000 are higher fungi.[126] Environmental issues Main article: Environmental issues in China See also: Water resources of the People's Republic of China Wind turbines in Xinjiang. The Dabancheng project is Asia's largest wind farm In recent decades, China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution.[127][128] While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development.[129] Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China.[130] China is the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter.[131] The country also has water problems. Roughly 298 million Chinese in rural areas do not have access to safe drinking water,[132] and 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011.[133] This crisis is compounded by increasingly severe water shortages, particularly in the north-east of the country.[134][135] However, China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization, with $52 billion invested in 2011 alone;[136][137][138] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.[139][140] By 2009, over 17% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants, of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW.[141] In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$618.55 billion) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.[134][142] In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277-billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.[143] Politics Main article: Politics of the People's Republic of China Tiananmen with a portrait of Mao Zedong The People's Republic of China is one of the world's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism (see Ideology of the Communist Party of China). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and corporatist,[144] with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against free access to the Internet, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, the right to have children, free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion.[145] Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the "people's democratic dictatorship", "socialism with Chinese characteristics" (which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "socialist market economy" respectively.[146] Communist Party The country is ruled by the Communist Party of China (CPC), whose power is enshrined in China's constitution.[147] The Chinese electoral system is hierarchical, whereby local People's Congresses are directly elected, and all higher levels of People's Congresses up to the National People's Congress (NPC) are indirectly elected by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.[148] The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.[149] There are other political parties in China, referred to in China as democratic parties, which participate in the National People's Congress and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC).[150] The Great Hall of the People in Beijing, where the National People's Congress convenes Compared to its closed-door policies until the mid-1970s, the liberalization of China has resulted in the administrative climate being less restrictive than before. China supports the Leninist principle of "democratic centralism",[151] but the elected National People's Congress has been described as a "rubber stamp" body.[152] As a single-party state, the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China holds ultimate power and authority over state and government.[m] Government The President of China is the titular head of state, serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People's Congress.[n] The Premier of China is the head of government, presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent President is Xi Jinping, who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader.[93] The incumbent Premier is Li Keqiang, who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee, China's de facto top decision-making body.[155] There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels.[156][157] However, the Party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[158][159] Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.[160] Administrative divisions Main articles: Administrative divisions of China, Districts of Hong Kong and Municipalities of Macau The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province, although Taiwan is currently and independently governed by the Republic of China, which disputes the PRC's claim.[161] China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two Special Administrative Regions (SARs), which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau. None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory. Provinces (ت،) Claimed Province * Anhui (°²»صت،) * Fujian (¸£½¨ت،) * Gansu (¸تثàت،) * Guangdong (¹م¶«ت،) * Guizhou (¹َضفت،) * Hainan (؛£ؤدت،) * Hebei (؛س±±ت،) * Heilongjiang (؛عءْ½ت،) * Henan (؛سؤدت،) * Hubei (؛±±ت،) * Hunan (؛ؤدت،) * Jiangsu (½ثصت،) * Jiangxi (½خ÷ت،) * Jilin (¼ھءضت،) * Liaoning (ءةؤت،) * Qinghai (اà؛£ت،) * Shaanxi (ةآخ÷ت،) * Shandong (ة½¶«ت،) * Shanxi (ة½خ÷ت،) * Sichuan (ثؤ´¨ت،) * Yunnan (شئؤدت،) * Zhejiang (صم½ت،) * Taiwan (ج¨حهت،) governed by ROC Autonomous regions (×شضخاّ) Municipalities (ض±د½تذ) Special administrative regions (جط±ًذذصاّ) * Guangxi (¹مخ÷׳×ه×شضخاّ) * Inner Mongolia / Nei Mongol (ؤعأة¹إ×شضخاّ) * Ningxia (ؤدؤ»ط×ه×شضخاّ) * Xinjiang (ذآ½®خ¬خل¶û×شضخاّ) * Tibet / Xizang (خ÷²ط×شضخاّ) * Beijing (±±¾©تذ) * Chongqing (ضطاىتذ) * Shanghai (ةد؛£تذ) * Tianjin (جى½ٍتذ) * Hong Kong / Xianggang (دم¸غجط±ًذذصاّ) * Macau / Aomen (°ؤأإجط±ًذذصاّ) China administrative claimed included.svg About this image Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of China Xi Jinping at a meeting with United States Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta in September 2012 The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162.[162] Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[163] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[164] Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's third official summit at Sanya, Hainan in April 2011.[165] Under its interpretation of the One-China policy, Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[166] especially in the matter of armament sales.[167] Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[168] This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations, such as Zimbabwe, North Korea and Iran.[169] China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,[170] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[171][172][173] A meeting of G5 leaders in 2007, with China's Hu Jintao second from right Trade relations In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.[174] The EAS, which includes ASEAN Plus Three, India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics. China became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) on 11 December 2001. In 2000, the United States Congress approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.[175] China has a significant trade surplus with the United States, its most important export market.[176] In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[177][178][179] In recent decades, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation;[180][181][182] in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion.[183] China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina.[184][185] Territorial disputes Map depicting territorial disputes between the PRC and neighbouring states. For a larger map, see here Main article: Foreign relations of China § International territorial disputes See also: List of wars involving the People's Republic of China In addition to claiming all of Taiwan, China has been involved in a number of other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal.[186][187] On 21 May 2014 President Xi, speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. "China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests," he said.[188] Emerging superpower status China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower, with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century.[23][189] Others, however, warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.[190][191] Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States.[192] Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform See also: Human rights in China, Hukou system, Social welfare in China, Elections in the People's Republic of China, Censorship in China and Feminism in China Protests in support of Cantonese media localization in Guangzhou, 2010 The Chinese democracy movement, social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, political freedom is still tightly restricted. The Constitution of the People's Republic of China states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[193][194] Censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,[195][196] is openly and routinely used in China to silence criticism of the government and the ruling Communist Party.[197][198] In 2005, Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of perceived press freedom.[199] Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as second-class citizens by the hukou household registration system, which controls access to state benefits.[200][201] Property rights are often poorly protected,[200] and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.[201] However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.[202][203] A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China's human rights record, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced abortions,[204] forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights,[145][205][206] and excessive use of the death penalty.[207][208] The government has suppressed demonstrations by organizations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[209][210] This box: | |
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